MUSIC IN THE EVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENT OF TAMIL CULTURE

LOKOGANDHAR ISSN : 2582-2705

Indigenous Art & Culture

Dr N. Muthukumaran, Professor of Violin, Tamil Nadu Government Music College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu

Abstract

Human evolution is a continuous process of social, cultural, and intellectual change. Throughout this evolutionary journey, human culture and music have remained inseparably intertwined. From birth to death, the experiences of human life have been closely associated with music. Against this background, the present article examines how music has functioned in the evolutionary development of Tamil culture as a social activity, a marker of cultural identity, a medium of ritual and worship, and an expression of political and social life. The study discusses the place of music in Sangam-period society and its contribution to occupations, politics, warfare, festivals, rituals, and other spheres of life, while also tracing the transformations that occurred over time.

The article further considers the Pāṇar tradition found in Sangam literature, the development of paṇ music in the Bhakti movement, linguistic changes in court culture, and the language-and-identity politics associated with the Tamil Isai movement. It argues that music in Tamil society should not be understood merely as an aesthetic or recreational art, but as a cultural expression intertwined with collective memory, tradition, emotion, structures of power, ritual practice, language, and identity.

Keywords

Anthropology; cultural domain; evolutionary development; Sangam society; traditions

Although music is deeply embedded in Tamil life and cultural continuity, scholarship has often approached it predominantly from an artistic perspective. Music, however, is not merely an art of sound intended for entertainment; it is a cultural expression intertwined with a society’s memory, tradition, emotions, structures of power, ritual practices, and linguistic identity. From the Sangam period to the present, music in Tamil society has undergone several stages of transformation under the influence of changes in politics, religion, caste, language, and modes of life.

The Pāṇar tradition represented in Sangam literature, the use of paṇ music in Bhakti worship, linguistic transformations in court culture, and the language-and-identity politics generated by the Tamil Isai movement demonstrate that music has been directly connected with wider social movements. Nevertheless, relatively few studies have integrated these transformations and examined music from an anthropological and cultural perspective. In particular, the manner in which music functioned as a medium of social cohesion, cultural continuity, emotional expression, and identity politics in the evolutionary development of Tamil culture requires further investigation. This constitutes the central research problem of the present study. Several scholars have examined Tamil Isai and Tamil musical traditions from different perspectives. M. Ki. Kōvālisettiyār, in his work Manidaviyal (Anthropology), explains the basic components of culture, social development, and the dimensions of human life. Bhaktavatsala Bharathi discusses the changing nature of culture and major anthropological theories in detail. These studies help us understand culture not as a static entity but as a social system that undergoes continuous transformation.

P. K. A. Sundaram’s Tamilisai Kalaik Kalañjiyam provides an extensive account of the historical development of Tamil music, changes in musical practice, and the cultural contribution of the Tamil Isai movement. P. Sethuraman and C. M. Rājagōpāla Chettiar, in their work Tamiḻar Isaikkaruvihaḷ, discuss the characteristics and uses of musical instruments in the Sangam period. Similarly, Sangam works such as the Tolkāppiyam, Kalittokai, Kuṟuntokai, Malaipaṭukaṭām, and Paripāṭal reveal the place of music in Tamil society, the Pāṇar tradition, and ritual musical contexts. Bhakti works such as the Tēvāram and Tiruvācakam demonstrate the development of musical worship. However, most of the above studies approach music primarily from literary, musicological, or historical perspectives. Studies that examine, from an integrated anthropological perspective, how music operated in relation to social structure, caste, political change, ritual practice, and linguistic identity in the evolutionary development of Tamil culture remain limited. The present study is situated within this research gap.

Objectives

To examine the origin and development of music in Tamil society.
To explain the role of music in Sangam-period social life.
To examine musical traditions in the Cilappatikāram and Bhakti literature.
To explain the impact of political and linguistic changes on music.
To examine the cultural contribution of music to ritual and social life.

The study adopts a descriptive and cultural-anthropological approach. Sangam literature, epics, Bhakti literature, works on the history of music, and research articles have been used as primary and secondary sources.

Introduction

Music had already become an integral cultural component of Tamil social life before the Sangam period. References to music in Sangam literature clearly indicate that Tamil civilisation evolved in close association with music. References to lost treatises on musical grammar, such as Akattiyam, Intirakāḷiyam, Mutunārai, and Mutukuruku, in Sangam literature provide important evidence that a tradition of musical theory existed in Tamil society even before the Sangam period. Tamil culture has undergone numerous changes and stages of development over time. Tamil society encountered diverse social circumstances, including the transition from clan-based social organisation to systems of land ownership and political authority, warfare, and settlements. While incorporating the cultural changes generated by these circumstances, Tamils retained their linguistic, musical, and cultural identity. Throughout this historical journey, music functioned as an audible form through which the emotions, structures of power, rituals, festivals, and lived experiences of Tamil society were expressed.

The evolutionary development of Tamil culture passed through several stages, from clan-based society to the Sangam period, the age of the epics, the Bhakti movement, medieval court culture, the colonial period, and the modern Tamil Isai movement. At each stage, music functioned as a medium of social consciousness, religious expression, political identity, and cultural continuity. Examining the role played by music across these stages from an anthropological perspective is the central concern of this article.

Anthropological Perspectives on Culture

Definitions of culture constitute a foundation of anthropological inquiry. M. Ki. Kōvālisettiyār, in Manidaviyal, defines culture as:

“Culture is a collection of the knowledge, habits, beliefs, and arts learned by human beings.”

(Kōvālisettiyār, Manidaviyal, 1963: xviii). This definition clarifies that culture is not something that arises naturally in an individual; rather, it is a way of life learned through society and transmitted from generation to generation.

The Tirukkuṟaḷ emphasises the necessity of culture and its social value:

பண்புடையார் பட்டுண்டு உலகம் அதுவின்றேல்
மண்புக்கு மாய்வது மன் (குறள், 966)

“The world exists because of those endowed with culture; without them, it would perish into the earth.” (Tirukkuṟaḷ, 966)

Through this statement, Tiruvaḷḷuvar points out that culture is a fundamental force sustaining human society and that a society without culture moves towards destruction.

Culture is not a static entity; it continuously changes according to time, context, and social transformations. Bhaktavatsala Bharathi emphasises this dynamic character and states that “culture is something that is continuously changing” (Bhaktavatsala Bharathi, Manidaviyal Kōṭpāṭukaḷ, 2005: 145). This perspective enables culture to be understood not as a fixed structure but as an evolving process.

Herskovits, while explaining culture, observes that “culture is uniquely manifested by incorporating the characteristics of each period and each region” (Bhaktavatsala Bharathi, Manidaviyal Kōṭpāṭukaḷ, 2005: 145). This makes it clear that the culture of each society acquires its distinctiveness on the basis of its geographical, historical, economic, and lived environment.

On the basis of these anthropological perspectives, the present study understands Tamil culture as having continuously incorporated changes while preserving its language, music, arts, and traditions. These theoretical perspectives provide a firm foundation for examining the manner in which music has functioned as the sonic form of culture.

Sangam-Period Tamil Society and Music

In Sangam-period Tamil society, music functioned not merely as an independent art form but as a mode of social life. Artists such as the Pāṇar, Viṟali, and Kūttar represented the social character of music. These artists created and transmitted Tamil musical and performance traditions. Sangam literature clearly shows that music was integrated with occupations, festivals, warfare, politics, and several other spheres of everyday life.

Sangam literature contains numerous references demonstrating that the people associated with the five ecological landscapes lived in close association with music. Tolkāppiyar states:

“The deities, food, great trees, birds, drums, news, and the kinds of the yāḻ, together with their musical modes, and other such features, are spoken of as the attributes of each landscape.” (Tolkāppiyam, Poruḷatikāram, Akattiṇai – 19)

This indicates the existence of specific musical instruments, paṟai drums, yāḻs, and paṇs associated with the five tiṇais. Each landscape possessed distinctive musical traditions.

Kuriñci landscape – Toṇṭakappaṟai, Kuriñci-yāḻ, and Kuriñci paṇ.
Mullai landscape – Ēṟukōṭpaṟai, Mullai-yāḻ, and Sātāri paṇ.
Marutam landscape – Sellari, Kiṇai, Maṇamuzhavu, Marutayāḻ, and Marutam paṇ.
Neytal landscape – Mīṉkōṭpaṟai, Nā vāy, Pampai, Viḷariyāḻ, and Sevvazhि paṇ.
Pālai landscape – Tuṭi, Pālai-yāḻ, and Pañcuram.

The use of these instruments and paṇs demonstrates that Sangam-period musical practice was organised on a geo-social basis.

The Pāṇar Tradition

The Malaipaṭukaṭām presents a vivid description of the life of a group of Pāṇar. In the passage beginning “Amaivar paṇṇi aruḷ neṟi tiriyātu…” (Malaipaṭukaṭām, line 40), the text describes a leader travelling up a high mountain together with Pāṇar who played the periyāḻ. Accompanied by the sound of the yāḻ, the Pāṇar climbed the mountain without experiencing fatigue. They possessed musical wealth and the generosity to offer it through the performance of paṇ music. The passage also indicates that groups of Pāṇar visited royal courts and received royal patronage, thereby obtaining substantial economic benefits.

Musical instruments also functioned as media of communication in Sangam society. A line in the Kalittokai—“Niṟaitimir kaḷiṟākatt tisaiyoli paṟaiyāka” (Kalittokai, 149)—indicates the use of the paṟai for announcing information among the people. The Kalittokai also indicates that the muḻavu was used in rituals such as waking ceremonies and weddings. This demonstrates that music formed an integral part of ritual and family life in the Sangam period. The Pāṇar also functioned as social intermediaries who helped resolve conflicts between lovers or between the hero and heroine. Kuṟuntokai 359 illustrates this social role of the Pāṇar, showing how music and speech could contribute to harmony in family relationships. Thus, in Sangam-period Tamil society, music was not merely an art. It operated as an integrated social system across occupations, politics, rituals, festivals, family relationships, and communication.

Musical Instruments in Times of War

Murasu / Paṟai

The murasu and paṟai were important membranophones used to announce the beginning of war and messages of victory. In the battlefield, these instruments functioned as sonic symbols of political authority and the courage of warriors.

Śaṅkha

The śaṅkha (conch) was used to summon warriors to battle and to intimidate enemies. Its sound had a psychological impact in the war environment, strengthening the fighting spirit of warriors while generating fear among opponents.

Tūmpu

The tūmpu was an aerophone that produced sound through the movement of air and contributed to creating the atmosphere of warfare. Its sound conveyed the excitement and intensity of the battlefield.

Kiṇai, Tuṭi and Ṭāri

The kiṇai, tuṭi, and ṭāri were sounded together with war drums, increasing the speed and vigour associated with battle. When played together, they created a sonic environment charged with martial emotion across the battlefield. (JournalsNew, 2017, “Traditional War Instruments and Communication Systems in Ancient Tamil Society.”)

In the Patiṟṟuppattu, one of the Eight Anthologies (Eṭṭuttokai), the designation of tuṟai, vaṇṇam, tūkk(u) (music), and name at the end of each poem indicates that poetry, music, and emotional expression were systematically organised in the Sangam period.

Music was deeply embedded in the culture and emotional life of the Tamils during the Sangam period. Human emotions such as love, valour, sorrow, and joy were expressed through music. Paripāṭal provides an important example of the evolution of a cultural form from an earlier tradition into a new form.

Paripāṭal centres on deities and places such as Murukaṉ, Koṟṟavai, Tirumāl, and Madurai. Its presentation of love centred on the divine may be considered a precursor to the later traditions of the Tirumuṟai and the Divya Prabandham.

Cilappatikāram

In the history of Tamil civilisation, literary works function not merely as repositories of imagination but also as cultural records of society. Among them, the Cilappatikāram stands as a major cultural document that comprehensively records the arts, culture, society, politics, religion, and ways of life of the Tamils. It is particularly significant for its detailed treatment of music and performance traditions. Hence, scholars have praised it as a “treasury of Tamil music” (U. Vē. Cāminātaiyar, ed., Cilappatikāram, 2008: 45).

The epic contains several indications of the continued development of Sangam-period Tamil musical traditions. Sections such as the Araṅgēṟṟuk Kāthai, Āycciyar Kuravai, and Kuṉṟak Kuravai reveal the sophisticated state of Tamil music and performance traditions. These sections show that the arts were not merely forms of entertainment but part of the vitality of social life (Ma. Po. Sivajñānam, Cilappatikāra Āyvu, 1990: 112).

Araṅgēṟṟuk Kāthai and Musical Tradition

The Araṅgēṟṟuk Kāthai of the Cilappatikāram is regarded as an important section illustrating the advanced development of Tamil music and dramatic art. Through Mādhavi’s arangēṟṟam, she describes the musical traditions of the period in considerable detail. The organisation of paṇs, concepts of rhythm, coordination of musical instruments, stage arrangement, and modes of dance all demonstrate the existence of systematic artistic training (Aṭiyārkkunallār’s commentary, Cilappatikāram – Araṅgēṟṟuk Kāthai, 1976: 156).

The eleven varieties of dance performed by Mādhavi represent integrated artistic forms involving music, rhythm, movement, and emotion. Such performances demonstrate the high level of cultural refinement achieved by Tamil society (V. P. K. A. Sundaram, Tamilisai Kalaik Kalañjiyam, Vol. 2, 1997: 214).

Significance of Musical Instruments

The Cilappatikāram mentions several musical instruments. The yāḻ, kuḻal, muḻavu, and taṇṇumai were important components of the musical tradition of the period. These instruments were used in royal courts, festivals, worship, and Kūttu performances (P. Sethuraman & C. M. Rājagōpāla Chettiar, Tamiḻar Isaikkaruvihaḷ, 1945: 32).

Among them, the yāḻ was regarded as a cultural symbol of the Tamils. It was celebrated as an instrument capable of expressing human emotions with delicacy. This demonstrates the close relationship between music and human states of mind (Mu. Arunācalam, Tamilisai Ilakkiya Varalāṟu, 1976: 87).

Paṇ Tradition and Tamil Isai

The paṇs occurring in the Cilappatikāram formed fundamental components of the musical system of the period. The paṇ tradition found in Sangam literature appears in a more refined form in this epic (V. P. K. A. Sundaram, Tamilisai Vaḷam, 1985: 144). Musicologists have considered these paṇs to have developed into rāgas in the later Carnatic music tradition.

This makes the continuous evolutionary development of the Tamil musical tradition evident. The epic also demonstrates that Tamil musical knowledge was connected not only with theoretical concepts but also with practical performance traditions (To. Paramasivan, Paṇpāṭṭu Asaivukaḷ, 2004: 98).

Music and Social Life

In the Cilappatikāram, music is seen not only in relation to court culture and religious events but also as a cultural component integrated into everyday life. Musicians received royal patronage and occupied respected positions in society.

Sections such as the Āycciyar Kuravai vividly depict folk music and collective dance traditions. This indicates that folk music held an important place in Tamil cultural traditions (Ka. Pa. Aravāṇan, Tamiḻar Paṇpāṭṭu Varalāṟu, 2001: 167).

Contribution of Commentators

Commentators such as Aṭiyārkkunallār have explained the musical information contained in the Cilappatikāram in considerable detail. Their explanations of paṇs, tāḷas, musical instruments, and performance practices constitute important sources for the study of Tamil music (Aṭiyārkkunallār’s Commentary on Cilappatikāram, 1976: 220).

The Cilappatikāram therefore stands as an important literary source that records in depth the role of music in the development of Tamil culture. Through the epic, it is possible to understand Tamil musical knowledge, artistic refinement, performance traditions, the development of musical instruments, the organisation of paṇs, and the close relationship between music and social life.

The musical information contained in the Cilappatikāram may consequently be regarded as important historical evidence for understanding the evolutionary development of Tamil culture.

The Bhakti Movement

After the Sangam period, during the emergence of the Bhakti movement, prominent religious figures encouraged spiritual consciousness among the people. As a result, religious sentiments became stronger in society, and the arts, particularly music, once again acquired an important place.

During the period when Buddhist and Jain doctrines were influential in Tamilakam, the arts, including music, are described in the article as having experienced a degree of decline. Subsequently, with the rise of Śaiva and Vaiṣṇava traditions, paṇ-based devotional songs received renewed impetus. Devotional compositions such as the Tēvāram and Tiruvācakam became integrated with music and worship in temples.

The Bhakti movement is therefore regarded as an important stage of cultural transformation in Tamil history. Whereas human life, love, and heroic emotion were central in Sangam literature, divine consciousness became central to social life during the Bhakti period. Kāraikkāl Ammaiyār is identified as one of the important pioneers of this transformation (Kā. Subramaṇiya Piḷḷai, Tamiḻ Ilakkiya Varalāṟu, 2009: 156–160).

Kāraikkāl Ammaiyār is regarded as one of the earliest female poets to compose devotional songs in Tamil. Her works, including Arputat Tiruvantāti, Tiruviṟaṭṭai Maṇimālai, and Mūtta Tiruppatikam, contributed to the foundation of Śaiva devotional literature. The transformation of the interior emotional world represented in Sangam literature into devotional emotion in Ammaiyār’s poetry demonstrates the evolutionary development of Tamil literature.

Her compositions contributed to the development of a devotional tradition integrated with music. Kāraikkāl Ammaiyār may be regarded as a precursor to the paṇ-based musical tradition found later in works such as the Tēvāram and Tiruvācakam (Mā. Irācamāṇikkār, Śaiva Samaya Vaḷarcci, 1972: 84–90). Her compositions also contributed to the emergence of a tradition in which song, music, and ritual were integrated into temple worship.

Kāraikkāl Ammaiyār and Women’s Spiritual Agency

Kāraikkāl Ammaiyār played an important role in elevating the spiritual status of women in Tamil society. Her decision to renounce domestic life and pursue devotion generated a new conception that women too could attain spiritual freedom and an independent identity (A. Mu. Paramacivānandam, Tamiḻar Samaya Varalāṟu, 1985: 112–115). This also contributed to a change in perceptions of women’s social participation.

Her compositions on Śiva’s tāṇḍava later exerted considerable influence on dance and temple-art traditions. In particular, her songs are associated with the spiritual and artistic ideas found in the worship tradition of the Naṭarāja at Chidambaram (Ka. Veḷḷaivāraṇan, Tamiḻar Paṇpāṭum Kalai Marabum, 1998: 201–205).

Thus, Kāraikkāl Ammaiyār was not merely a female religious poet; she was a cultural pioneer who contributed to transformations in Bhakti, music, literature, women’s spiritual agency, and temple-worship traditions in the evolutionary development of Tamil culture.

The Nāyaṉmārs and Āḻvārs

Tirujñāna Sambandar, Tirunāvukkaracar, and Sundarar played important roles in the development of Tamil culture. Their Tēvāram hymns spread Śaiva religious consciousness among the people and elevated Tamil as a language of devotion. Their compositions strengthened traditions of music, song, processions, and festivals in temple worship. In particular, the tradition of the Ōtuvār, who sings the Tēvāram, became an integral part of temple culture. By taking devotional expression beyond caste distinctions and among the wider population, these traditions also contributed to social cohesion (Mā. Irācamāṇikkār, Śaiva Samaya Vaḷarcci, 1972: 102–118).

Similarly, Āḻvārs such as Nammāḻvār, Āṇṭāḷ, and Periyāḻvār exerted a deep influence on the spiritual and cultural life of the Tamils. Their Nālāyira Divya Prabandham became a foundation of Vaiṣṇava devotional literature. By expressing relationships with the divine in accessible Tamil, the Bhakti movement expanded among the general population. Āṇṭāḷ’s Tiruppāvai continues to be an integral part of the Tamil Mārgaḻi worship tradition. The contribution of the Āḻvārs to music, temple ritual, festival traditions, and devotional literature occupies a lasting place in the evolutionary development of Tamil culture (S. Vaiyāpuri Piḷḷai, Tamiḻar Paṇpāṭṭu Varalāṟu, 1981: 214–225).

Kings and rulers also supported artists who developed the arts by maintaining them in royal courts and thereby preserving music and other artistic traditions. Thus, during the Bhakti period, music functioned as a social art closely connected with religion, politics, and culture.

Aruṇagirināthar

Aruṇagirināthar made a distinctive contribution to the development of Tamil cultural and musical traditions. His Tiruppukaḻ compositions created a new phase in Tamil devotional literature by integrating music, metre, rhythm, and spirituality. In particular, the Tiruppukaḻ songs, characterised by complex rhythmic structures and distinctive prosodic patterns, enriched the rhythmic tradition of Tamil music. They spread devotion to Murukaṉ and exerted considerable influence on temple music and worship traditions. By highlighting the sonic richness of Tamil and its musical potential, Aruṇagirināthar stands as an important spiritual poet who connected the Bhakti movement with the lived experience of the people (Ku. Cuntaramūrtti, Tiruppukaḻ Āyvu, 1995: 45–58).

Musicians of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

Several scholars and musicians made significant contributions to the development of Tamil music during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Ūttukkāṭu Vēṅkaṭasubbaiyar created a distinctive tradition combining literary richness and musical sophistication through his Kṛṣṇa devotional compositions. His compositions, including Alaipāyutē Kaṇṇā and Tēyē Yēśōdā, continue to occupy an important place on Carnatic music platforms.

Similarly, the Tamil Isai Mūvar—Muttuttāṇṭavar, Mārimuttāppiḷḷai, and Aruṇācala Kavi—are regarded as pioneers who strengthened the kīrtana tradition in Tamil. Their compositions laid the foundation for Tamil-centred devotional music and contributed subsequently to the development of Tamil sāhitya in Carnatic music (V. P. K. A. Sundaram, Tamilisai Kalaik Kalañjiyam, Vol. 4, 2000: 156–172).

Gōpālakṛṣṇa Bhārati integrated music, drama, and social thought through his Nandanār Carittiram. His compositions, which expressed social awareness against caste oppression, gave Tamil music a new social dimension. Pāpanācam Śivan composed numerous kīrtanas in Tamil and strengthened the position of Tamil music in Carnatic music. Revered as the “Tamil Tyāgarāja,” he brought Tamil music to the wider public through both film music and devotional music. Through the contributions of such musicians, Tamil music developed beyond temple and sabhā traditions into a cultural movement closely connected with the everyday life of the public (Iṟā. Iḷaṅkumaraṉ, Tamilisai Varalāṟu, 2008: 214–236).

Music and Politics

After the Vijayanagara Empire, the Nāyaka period, and the Maratha incursions, significant political and cultural transformations occurred in Tamil musical traditions. Changes in political authority, court culture, and linguistic dominance affected the form, content, and systems of musical training.

During the Vijayanagara–Nāyaka period, Telugu acquired importance in court culture. As a consequence, Telugu, Sanskrit, and Marathi interacted with Tamil music and produced a maṇipravāḷam-like linguistic mixture. This contributed to linguistic hybridity in musical literature and to the development of new kīrtana traditions.

During this period, the paṇ-based musical tradition that had prevailed during the Sangam and Bhakti periods gradually receded, while a rāga–tāḷa-based musical system became increasingly prominent (Sundaram, V. P. K. A., Tamilisai Kalaik Kalañjiyam, Vol. 4, 2000: 112–118).

Western contacts also resulted in the introduction of new instruments such as the violin into Tamil music. Owing to its flexible tonal capacity, the violin became an important instrument in Carnatic music (Day, C. R., The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan, 1891: 64–66). This constitutes an important example of the direct influence of political and cultural contacts on musical development.

During Islamic rule and the subsequent British period, the position of artists who had served in association with temples and royal courts changed considerably. As royal and temple patronage declined, artists engaged in music and other arts lost important forms of support. Consequently, their livelihoods became uncertain and traditional artistic practices faced interruptions (Parthasarathy, K., Introduction to Carnatic Music, 1982: 23–27).

In the post-Independence period, when political thought centred on linguistic identity took root, the Tamil Isai movement gained renewed strength. The idea that music should develop with Tamil as its central language became widespread. As a result, Tamil sāhityas were set in rāga-based frameworks and began to be performed on concert platforms and in sabhās. Tamil Isai therefore functioned not merely as an artistic movement but also as an expression of language-and-identity politics (Isaiyiyal, Vol. V, Part I, 1979: 45–52).

Thus, in the history of Tamil music, politics did not operate merely as an external factor; it functioned as a central force determining musical form, language, training, and social status. Music, power, language, and identity developed in Tamil society as interconnected social phenomena.

Caste and Music

In Sangam-period Tamil society, music and Kūttu were associated with the life of particular social and occupational groups. Artist communities known as the Pāṇar, Viṟali, and Kūttar worked professionally with song, music, and dance. Sangam literature clearly indicates that kings and patrons supported these artists. Rather than being viewed primarily as an elite art, music in that period functioned as an occupational tradition associated with particular communities (P. Sethuraman & C. M. Rājagōpāla Chettiar, Tamiḻar Isaikkaruvihaḷ, 1945: 4–6).

During the monarchical periods, particularly under the Pallavas, Cōḻas, and Pāṇḍyas, artists were maintained in temples and royal courts. As temples became major institutions for music and dance, artists became incorporated into a structured social system. Although these systems of patronage contributed to artistic development on the one hand, they also possessed the capacity to regulate the social roles of artists on the other.

Until the modern period, musical art was regarded as the traditional preserve of certain social groups. Particularly during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the emerging Carnatic music tradition gained strength within the urban sabhā culture under the influence of Brahmin social dominance. Consequently, music education, performance, and evaluation became concentrated within a particular social circle.

However, when social reform movements and language-and-identity politics became stronger in the early twentieth century, music began to move towards the wider public. The Tamil Isai movement is a prominent example. During this period, the idea that music was not an art belonging to a particular caste but a cultural resource belonging to all communities gained strength (Sundaram, V. P. K. A., Tamilisai Kalaik Kalañjiyam, Vol. 4, 2000: 210–225).

After Independence, the Government of Tamil Nadu established music schools and music colleges with the aim of making music education more accessible to the general public. Music departments were also established in universities and curriculum-based systems of education were developed. Through these developments, musical tradition increasingly moved beyond caste identity and became a social opportunity based on education and competence.

Thus, music in Tamil society undertook a cultural journey beginning with occupational and clan traditions, moving through caste-based structures, and later moving towards a more democratic public sphere in the modern period. Music therefore cannot be understood merely as art; it is a cultural expression closely connected with social power, caste identity, education, and politics.

Ritual and Music

Rituals constitute a central cultural component of Tamil social life. Within these rituals, music functions not merely as an aesthetic art form but as a powerful medium for enacting collective memory, emotional expression, and the transmission of tradition. Music is integrated into rituals performed from birth to death.

Social Role of Ritual Music

In Tamil society, folk songs, paṇ-based traditions, and percussion instruments such as the uṭukkai, villu, and paṟai are widely used in folk rituals, festivals, weddings, and funerary ceremonies. These musical forms create a sonic environment appropriate to the emotional condition of each ritual.

Contexts of Ritual Music

Music in wedding rituals. In Tamil weddings, nādasvaram and tavil music are regarded as auspicious musical traditions. Such music expresses the sacredness of the wedding and its social recognition.
Music in festivals and temple rituals. In temple festivals, paṇ-based songs, nādasvaram, and tavil form part of worship. Music functions as a medium of communication between the divine and the human.
Music in funerary rituals. Paṟai music is used in funerary ceremonies as a medium for expressing death, separation, and grief. Here, music becomes a collective expression of social mourning.
Music in folk worship rituals. In the worship of deities such as Amman, Karuppacāmi, and Māṭan, instruments such as the uṭukkai, pampai, and paṟai are used. At the climactic stages of the ritual, they generate devotional and ecstatic states.

Victor Turner observes: “Ritual symbols and music generate collective emotional energy and social cohesion” (Turner, The Ritual Process, 1969: 96).

This demonstrates that ritual music in Tamil society is not merely an art; it functions as the sonic form of collective memory, emotional regulation, and cultural continuity.

Conclusion

Music has remained a deeply embedded cultural component throughout all stages of the evolutionary development of Tamil life. It has functioned not merely as an auditory art but as a medium of lived experience through which human emotions, social relationships, ritual traditions, and cultural identities are expressed.

The Tamils of the Sangam period used music in all spheres of life, including nature, occupations, warfare, festivals, and family life. This makes clear that music was directly integrated with social life.

Sangam literature, the Cilappatikāram, and Bhakti literature constitute important historical and cultural evidence for the continuous development of Tamil musical traditions.

Kāraikkāl Ammaiyār, the Nāyaṉmārs, the Āḻvārs, and Aruṇagirināthar transformed music into a medium of divine consciousness, spirituality, and devotional emotion and played important roles in the development of Tamil religious and temple traditions.

Musicians such as Ūttukkāṭu Vēṅkaṭasubbaiyar, the Tamil Isai Mūvar, Gōpālakṛṣṇa Bhārati, and Pāpanācam Śivan popularised Tamil music and expanded its linguistic, literary, and social reach.

Social transformations involving politics, language, caste, and religion influenced the form, content, and social status of music. Music therefore emerges as a cultural system that evolves in response to social change.

Music has occupied an important place in life-cycle and social events such as weddings, festivals, temple worship, and funerary rituals. It has consequently functioned as a cultural instrument for preserving social memory and continuity of tradition.

The present study therefore establishes that Tamil music is not merely an artistic tradition. It constitutes a living anthropological document that has preserved, across generations, the social memory, linguistic identity, spiritual consciousness, and cultural continuity of Tamil society.

References

Aṭiyārkkunallār. (1976). Cilappatikāram – Araṅgēṟṟuk Kāthai. Chennai: U. Vē. Cāminātaiyar Nūl Nilayam.
Annamalai University. (1979). Isaiyiyal, Vol. V, Part I. Chidambaram: Annamalai University Publications.
Aravāṇan, Ka. Pa. (2001). Tamiḻar Paṇpāṭṭu Varalāṟu. Chennai: Ulakat Tamiḻārāycci Niruvanam.
Arunācalam, Mu. (1976). Tamilisai Ilakkiya Varalāṟu. Chennai: Kalaimagal Publications.
Iḷaṅkumaraṉ, Iṟā. (2008). Tamilisai Varalāṟu. Chennai: New Century Book House.
Irācamāṇikkār, Mā. (1972). Śaiva Samaya Vaḷarcci. Chennai: Poompuhar Publications.
Vē. Cāminātaiyar (ed.). (2008). Cilappatikāram. Thanjavur: Tamil University.
Eṭṭuttokai – Kalittokai. Chennai: New Century Book House.
Eṭṭuttokai – Kuṟuntokai. Chennai: New Century Book House.
Eṭṭuttokai – Naṟṟiṇai. Chennai: New Century Book House.
Eṭṭuttokai – Patiṟṟuppattu. Chennai: New Century Book House.
Eṭṭuttokai – Paripāṭal. Chennai: New Century Book House.
Kōvālisettiyār, M. Ki. (1963). Manidaviyal. Chennai: Government of Tamil Nadu Publications.
Sethuraman, P., & Rājagōpāla Chettiar, C. M. (1945). Tamiḻar Isaikkaruvihaḷ. Chennai: Tamil Development Government Publications.
Sivajñānam, Ma. Po. (1990). Cilappatikāra Āyvu. Chennai: Poompuhar Publications.
Sundaram, V. P. K. A. (1985). Tamilisai Vaḷam. Chennai: Isai Ārāycci Publications.
Sundaram, V. P. K. A. (1997). Tamilisai Kalaik Kalañjiyam, Vol. 2. Chennai: Bharathidasan University Publications.
Sundaram, V. P. K. A. (2000). Tamilisai Kalaik Kalañjiyam, Vol. 4. Chennai: Bharathidasan University Publications.
Cuntaramūrtti, Ku. (1995). Tiruppukaḻ Āyvu. Chennai: Manivasagar Publications.
Subramaṇiya Piḷḷai, Kā. (2009). Tamiḻ Ilakkiya Varalāṟu. Chennai: Ulakat Tamiḻārāycci Niruvanam.
Tolkāppiyar. Tolkāppiyam – Poruḷatikāram. Chennai: Saiva Siddhanta Publishing Society.
Tiruvaḷḷuvar. Tirukkuṟaḷ. Chennai: Saiva Siddhanta Publishing Society.
Bhaktavatsala Bharathi. (2005). Manidaviyal Kōṭpāṭukaḷ. Chennai: Ulakat Tamiḻārāycci Niruvanam.
Paramasivan, To. (2004). Paṇpāṭṭu Asaivukaḷ. Nagercoil: Kālaśuvadu Publications.
Paramacivānandam, A. Mu. (1985). Tamiḻar Samaya Varalāṟu. Chennai: Tamil Publications.
Malaipaṭukaṭām. Pattuppāṭṭu. Chennai: New Century Book House.
Vaiyāpuri Piḷḷai, S. (1981). Tamiḻar Paṇpāṭṭu Varalāṟu. Chennai: Tamil Puttakālayam.
Veḷḷaivāraṇan, Ka. (1998). Tamiḻar Paṇpāṭum Kalai Marabum. Madurai: Mīṉākṣi Puttaka Nilayam.
Day, C. R. (1891). The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan. London: Novello & Company.
Parthasarathy, K. (1982). Introduction to Carnatic Music. Chennai: K. Parthasarathy Publications.
Turner, V. (1969). The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company.

Journal / Online Source

JournalsNew. (2017). “Traditional War Instruments and Communication Systems in Ancient Tamil Society.” JournalsNew, September 2017. Available at: 2017article16.pdf.

Author Biography

Current Academic & Executive Roles
1. Professor of Violin: Tamil Nadu Government Music College, Chennai.
2. Controller of Examinations: The Tamil Nadu Dr. J. Jayalalithaa Music and Fine Arts University, Chennai.
  
  Professional Profile
  1. Violinist, musicologist, and researcher.
    
    Academic & Research Interests
    1. Carnatic Music
    2. Tamil Pann Isai
    3. Tirumurai Music
    4. Temple Music & Performing Arts
      
      Doctoral Research
      
      5. Focused on Pann Isai in the temples associated with the Dharumai Aadheenam tradition.
      
      Performances & International Engagement
      
      6. Actively engaged in musical performances, academic conferences, and research activities across India and abroad.
      
      Research Vision
      
      7. Dedicated to the documentation, analysis, and preservation of Tamil musical traditions and their relationship with contemporary South Indian classical music.

Professor of Violin, Tamil Nadu Government Music College, Chennai, Tamilnadu, Email: violinmuthu@gmail.com

Lokogandhar