Month: May 2022

Anindya Banerjee

Abstract: This study delves into the captivating world of Indian Ghazal, a poetic and musical genre that transcends boundaries, resonating with the deepest sentiments of the human soul. Focusing on the iconic figure of Begum Akhtar, a legendary Ghazal singer whose artistry left an indelible mark on the cultural landscape of India, the research examines the historical roots, evolution, and unique characteristics of the Ghazal tradition. Begum Akhtar, often referred to as the “Queen of Ghazal,” emerges as a central figure in this exploration, her sublime renditions serving as a lens through which we gain insights into the rich tapestry of emotions woven into the fabric of Ghazal. The paper navigates through the cultural and linguistic diversity of Ghazal poetry, highlighting its themes of love, pain, and mysticism, and how these themes find expression in the haunting melodies and poignant renditions of Begum Akhtar. Additionally, the study sheds light on the socio-cultural impact of Begum Akhtar’s contributions, her role in popularizing Ghazal among diverse audiences, and her influence on subsequent generations of artists. Through a blend of historical analysis, musical critique, and cultural examination, this research aims to deepen our understanding of the profound connection between the poetic artistry of Ghazal and the timeless legacy of Begum Akhtar in the musical heritage of India.

ভারতীয় গজল ও বেগম আখতার, অনিন্দ্য বন্দ্যোপাধ্যায়

কবিতার চেহারায় ‘গজল’-এর আবির্ভাব ঘটেছিল পারস্যে, খ্রিস্টীয় দশম শতাব্দীতে। পারস্যে সৃষ্টি হলেও ভারতীয় গজল-এর এক নিজস্ব চরিত্র নির্মিত হয়েছে, যার শিকড় রয়েছে ভারতীয় সংস্কৃতিতে। ‘গজল’ প্রকৃত অর্থে উর্দুতে লেখা কবিতা, আর তা শিবিরের ভাষা হিসেবে উর্দুর জন্ম হয়েছিল এই ভারতেই। “উর্দু’ তুর্কি ভাষার একটা শব্দ, যার সহজ অর্থ ‘সৈন্যদের বাজার’। বলাই বাহুল্য, উর্দু ভাষার বিকাশের স্থানও এই ভারতবর্ষ। কথ্য উর্দুর শরীর নির্মিত হয়েছে হিন্দি, তুর্কি, আরব্য ও পারস্যদেশীয় শব্দের মিশ্রণে। জনপ্রিয় ভাষা হিসেবে উর্দু ভাষার বিশেষ প্রচলন ঘটেছিল যখন মুঘল বাদশাদের শাসন ভারতে কায়েম ছিল। আরও বিশ্লেষণ করে বললে, মুঘলদের সেই গৌরবময় শাসনকালেই উর্দু ভাষা হিসেবে এক মাধুর্যময় পরিণত চেহারা পেয়েছিল।

ইতিহাসের সেই আলোছায়ার দিনগুলোতে প্রামাণ্য রচনার প্রশ্নে প্রথম গজল লিখেছিলেন আমীর খসরু। সেটা ত্রয়োদশ শতাব্দীর ঘটনা। চরিত্র ও শরীরের প্রশ্নে গজল দুটো সংস্কৃতির সহজভাবে সংযুক্ত হওয়া, দুটো ভাষায় তা প্রকাশিত। গজলের অর্ধাংশ পারস্যের ভাষা, অন্য অংশটা ছিল ব্রিজভাষা। এবং সেইভাবেই দুটো অংশে ভেঙেই গাওয়া হত তখন। কালের সঙ্গে সঙ্গে প্রকৃত গুণীদের কৃতিত্বে উর্দু গজল পরিণত ও শিল্পময়। সঙ্গীতের চেহারা পেল ১৮ ও ১৯ শতকে। সেই পরিণত, জনপ্রিয় গজল প্রধানত বিকশিত হয়েছিল লক্ষ্ণৌ ও দিল্লিতে।

ভারতীয় সঙ্গীতে ধ্রুপদ, ধামার খেয়াল, ঠুমরি যেভাবে প্রাধান্য দিয়ে শিল্পীরা পরিবেশন করতেন বা স্বীকৃতি পেত, গজল গানকে সেই প্রাধান্য বা ততটা স্বীকৃতি দেওয়া হত না যতদিন না শ্রোতারা বেগম আখতার পরিবেশিত গজল গান শুনলেন। বেগমের গানের পরিবেশন এমনই উন্নতমানের এবং নান্দনিক ছিল যে, উনি গজল গানকে উল্লিখিত গানগুলির সমপর্যায়ে উন্নীত করেন। গজল গানে একটা আলাদা মাত্রা এনে দেন। ওঁর পরিবেশনের পর থেকে গজল গানও একক এবং অন্যতম প্রধান সঙ্গীত হিসেবে পরিচিতি লাভ করে। বেগম আখতারের সমসাময়িক ও পরবর্তী প্রজন্মের গান উচ্চমানের হলেও ওঁর গাওয়া গজল এক অনন্য রূপ ধারণ করত। তার প্রধান কারণ ওঁর কণ্ঠস্বর, যেটাকে সাঙ্গীতিক ভাষায় গলার আঁশ বলা হয়ে থাকে। সেই কণ্ঠস্বরের পেছনে ছিল ওঁর আবেগ এবং আকুতি, যাতে থাকত একটা সূক্ষ্ম বা প্রচ্ছন্ন যৌনতার আবেদন। ওঁর মতন গায়নশৈলী ও পারদর্শিতা অনেকের মধ্যে থাকলেও প্রতিটি উর্দু শব্দের অর্থ এবং তার কাব্যগুণকে মাথায় রেখে সহজ-সরল উচ্চারণ করে যেভাবে উনি গজল পরিবেশন করে গেছেন তেমনটি অন্যদের গজল গানে সেইভাবে পাওয়া যায়নি। এই কারণেই তিনি ছিলেন একজন কালজয়ী ব্যতিক্রমী গজল শিল্পী।

মূল আরবি শব্দ গাজাল (Ghazaal) থেকে প্রত্যয়সিদ্ধ শব্দ হিসেবে পরিচিত হল ‘গজল’ (Ghazal) নামে। এর প্রকৃতিগত অর্থ হল একজনের ভালবাসার মানুষের সঙ্গে আলাপ করা। গজল-এ বিষাদসিক্ত স্বর থাকা যেমন খুবই জরুরি, তেমন জানাতেই হবে। সেই মুহূর্তে প্রেমিক বা প্রেমিকা ঠিক কোন মানসিক অবস্থায় আছে। ঐতিহ্যগতভাবে গজল-এ নিদারুণ মনস্তাপও জানানো হয়। অতীতে গজল গান হিসেবে পরিবেশন করতেন স্বয়ং গজল রচয়িতা কবিবৃন্দ। এখনও এদেশের অনেক আসরে, অর্থাৎ মুশায়েরায় সেইভাবেই গাওয়া হয়ে থাকে। কিন্তু সঙ্গীতজগতে, গজল পরিবেশন করেন। তাঁরাই যাঁরা সভানতকী বা পতিতা ছিলেন। এঁদের মধ্যে কেউ কেউ বিখ্যাত সঙ্গীতশিল্পী হিসেবেও খ্যাতি অর্জন করেছিলেন। বিংশ শতাব্দীর শুরু ও মাঝামাঝি সময়ে সুপরিচিত গজল গায়ক-গায়িকা হিসেবে এই ধরনের গানের একটা শিল্পময় ও আকর্ষণীয় চেহারা দিয়েছিলেন জোহরাবাঈ, কমলা ঝরিয়া, মাস্টার মদন এবং অবশ্যই বেগম আখতার। এবং এঁদের গজল গাওয়াকে নিশ্চিতভাবে গজল গায়কির উজ্জ্বল উদাহরণ-এর স্বীকৃতি দিতে হবে।

অবিস্মরণীয়া বেগম আখতার তাঁর অনুভবদীপ্ত আন্তরিকতার গায়কি দিয়ে রচয়িতা কবিদের গজল-এ প্রাণপ্রতিষ্ঠা করতে পেরেছিলেন। আবেগতাড়িত শ্রোতাদের উদ্বেলিত হৃদয় তাঁর গান শুনে আবেগে অসহায় হয়ে পড়ত। গজল-এর জনপ্রিয়তার একটা বড় কারণ বিহ্বল হয়ে পড়া শ্রোতার গানটির কথা ও সুরবাহিত মোহিনীমায়ার সঙ্গে নিজের অস্তিত্বও মিলিয়ে নিতে চাওয়া। গজল জনপ্রিয় হয়ে ওঠার প্রধান কারণ অসংখ্য শ্রোতা গজলটির কথা ও গায়নভঙ্গি তার নিজের আনন্দ-বেদনার অর্থবহ বহিঃপ্রকাশ বলে মনে করে।

বেগম আখতার অতুলনীয় গায়কিতে তাঁর শ্রোতাদের প্রতিটি মুহূর্তে প্রাণবন্ত গজল এর কবিতার প্রতি দুই লাইনের পরে কী গাওয়া হবে সেই প্রত্যাশায় অস্থির করে রাখতেন। পরের দুই লাইনে কবির বর্ণনার ছবি যেমন সম্পূর্ণ হয় এবং বক্তব্যের মূল কথাটাও প্রতিষ্ঠা পেয়ে যায়। গজল-এর প্রথম দু’লাইন নিয়ে বেগম হৃদয়হরণ ভঙ্গির খেলা খেলতে থাকেন। শ্রোতারাও প্রত্যাশায় অস্থির হয়ে পড়েন। ঠিক সেই মুহূর্তে শিল্পী বেগম আখতার তাঁর নিখুঁত সময়জ্ঞানের পরিচয় দিয়ে শ্রোতাদের সামান্যতম সময় অপেক্ষা করাবেন, হারমোনিয়ামের ওপর তাঁর আঙুলও মুহূর্তের জন্য স্থির হয়ে থাকবে, তার পরেই তিনি সেই মোক্ষম সময়ে, নাটকীয় ভঙ্গিতে কবিতাটির মূল বক্তব্যটি পেশ করবেন।

তাঁর নিজের সময়েই ভাষা হিসেবে উর্দুর অবক্ষয় সম্পর্কে তিনি সচেতন ছিলেন। দূরদর্শী ব্যক্তিত্ব হিসেবে তিনি নিজেই জানতেন যে ভারতীয় উপমহাদেশের ভাগ হয়ে যাওয়ায় খুব কমসংখ্যক ভারতীয়ই উর্দুর নির্ভুল প্রয়োগ সম্পর্কে ওয়াকিবহাল রয়েছে। এমন পরিস্থিতিতে তিনি বিখ্যাত কবি মির্জা গালিব এবং অন্য সুপরিচিত কবিদের রচনায় সুরারোপ করে বা করিয়ে গাইতে থাকেন। সঙ্গীতের বিশুদ্ধতার প্রশ্নে তিনি অবশ্য সত্যিকারের গজল গায়কির প্রতি শ্রদ্ধাশীল থেকেই গাওয়া চালিয়েছিলেন।

গজল-এর গায়কির প্রশ্নে বেগম আখতার -এর শূন্যস্থান শূন্যই থেকে যাবে। এমন কথাও সহজে বলে দেওয়া যায় গজল গায়িকা হিসেবে বেগম আখতার-এর গৌরবময় আসন চিরকালই ফাঁকা থেকে যাবে। এমনিতেই মহিলা সঙ্গীতশিল্পীদের মধ্যে তিনিই বোধহয় সেই স্তরের শেষ গায়িকা, যিনি সঙ্গীত ও কবিতাকে সমপর্যায়ের গুরুত্ব আরোপ করতে পেরেছিলেন। অন্য সব সভাগায়িকা গজলগায়িকা হিসেবে সঙ্গীতকে কবিতার কাছে নিয়ে এসেছিলেন। বেগম আখতার কিন্তু কবিতাকে সঙ্গীতের কাছে পৌঁছে দিয়েছিলেন। এবং কাজটা একেবারেই সহজ শিল্প ছিল না।

শিল্পী হিসেবে বেগম আখতার-এর কবিতা ও সঙ্গীত — উভয়ই যেন একই সঙ্গে সহজ লাবণ্যের শরীর নিয়ে তাঁর কাছে এসেছিল। সেই সেকালের সভাগায়িকা বা বাইজিরা ঐতিহ্যের অনুসারী হয়ে সঙ্গীত-সম্পর্কিত জ্ঞান ও দক্ষতা নিয়ে গানের প্রশ্নে নৃত্যের গুরু বা উস্তাদদের কাছে হাজির হতেন। অনেক কবি, যাঁরা খ্যাতির সন্ধানে উৎসাহী ছিলেন, যাঁরা উর্দু ভাষা-সাহিত্যের পণ্ডিত, তাঁদেরই আমন্ত্রণ জানাতেন এই সভাগায়িকারা। তাঁরা সচেতনভাবে বিশ্বাস করতেন গজল হয়ে ওঠার উপযুক্ত কবিতাগুলোর অন্তর্নিহিত আনন্দ বেদনার প্রকৃত অর্থ জানা ও বোঝার প্রয়োজন আছে। শুধু তা-ই নয়, দরবারের এবং মজলিশের সৌজন্য ও আদবকায়দা সম্পর্কেও যথাযোগ্য শিক্ষাও দরকার। খানদানি পরিবারের সঙ্গীতরসিকদের জীবনযাত্রার সঙ্গেই এই ধরনের সৌজন্যবোধ জড়িয়ে থাকে। দূরদর্শী ও যথার্থ রসিক হৃদয়-সহ বিরল যোগ্যতার শিল্পী বেগম আখতার ছিলেন এই ধরনের সভাগায়িকাদের সর্বোচ্চস্তরের প্রতিনিধি। যিনি কিনা একই সঙ্গে শিল্পী ও উঁচুমানের রুচি ও সংস্কৃতিবোধেরও উজ্জ্বল উদাহরণ।

নৃত্য ও গীতের সঙ্গে অপরিহার্য সঙ্গীতমাধ্যম হিসেবে গজল বিশ শতকে জনপ্রিয় হয়ে ওঠার ক্ষেত্রে সিনেমা ও সিনেমায় ব্যবহৃত গানেরও একটা বড় ভূমিকা ছিল। সিনেমায় গান গাওয়ার দক্ষতাতেই বেগম আখতার তাঁর খ্যাতির প্রথম স্তরে পৌঁছেছিলেন। কিন্তু সেটা ছিল নিতান্তই প্রাথমিক স্তর। কিন্তু পরবর্তী গৌরবময় অধ্যায় নির্মিত হয়েছিল অল ইন্ডিয়া রেডিও ও গ্রামোফোন কোম্পানির রেকর্ডের মাধ্যমে। তাঁর জীবনের শুরুর দিকে রেকর্ড প্রকাশের অনেক পরে তাঁর প্রকৃত জনপ্রিয়তা এসেছিল লং প্লে ও এক্সটেনডেড-প্লে রেকর্ড-এর মাধ্যমে। গোটা দেশের বিখ্যাত সঙ্গীতব্যক্তিত্বদের বাড়িতেই পৌঁছে গিয়েছিল সেই রেকর্ডগুলো। এই ঘটনা অবশ্য প্রকৃত অর্থে অনিবার্য ছিল। কারণ ততদিনে সঙ্গীতরসিকরা তাঁর জাদু করে ফেলা কন্ঠস্বরের সঙ্গে গায়কির মধ্যে বিস্ময়কর নিয়ন্ত্রণক্ষমতায় মুগ্ধ হয়ে পড়েছিলেন। এই প্রসঙ্গে এটাও মনে করিয়ে দেওয়া দরকার, উর্দু ভাষার সঙ্গে বেগমের নিজস্ব স্বভাবজাত সম্পর্ক তাঁকে অন্য গজল গায়ক গায়িকাদের চেয়ে আলাদা করেছিল।

এখানেই উদাহরণ প্রয়োজন। অসামান্য দরদ ও উচ্চারণ দিয়ে গজল গাইবার সময় বেগম আখতার ঠিক যেভাবে ইচ্ছাকৃতভাবে শব্দগুলোকে ভাঙতেন এবং জোড়া দিতেন, তাতেই উর্দু ভাষার ক্ষেত্রে তাঁর অসামান্য নিয়ন্ত্রণক্ষমতা প্রমাণিত হত। অথচ এই অনায়াস কর্মে কখনও সাঙ্গীতিক বিচ্যুতি ঘটত না। অন্যভাবে দেখলে, এটাও মনে রাখতে হবে এই ধরনের গায়কিতে, গায়নভঙ্গিতে যাতে কিছুতেই সঙ্গীতের আশ্রয় হিসেবে কবিতাটির সৌন্দর্যহানি না হয় সেদিকেও তিনি খেয়াল রাখতেন। সহজ আনন্দে এই স্টাইলে গাইবার যে ধারা, তা বেগম আখতারের পরবর্তী সময়ের শিল্পী হিসেবে মেহেদি হাসান, ইকবাল বানু এবং ফরিদা খানুম-এর মধ্যেও কমবেশি দেখা গেছে। কিন্তু দুঃখের কথা এই, পরবর্তী সময়ের অধিকাংশ শিল্পীর মধ্যে এই বিশেষ দক্ষতা দেখা যায়নি।

১৯৪৭-এর পরবর্তী সময়ে সঙ্গীতের মাধ্যমে উর্দু ভাষার প্রচার-প্রসারে বেগম আখতার বিশেষভাবে কার্যকর এক ভূমিকা নিতে পেরেছিলেন। বিখ্যাত ও প্রতিভাবান উর্দু কবিদের রচনাকে তিনি যথাযোগ্য মর্যাদায় গেয়েছেন। এই তালিকায় আছেন— মীর,গালিব, দাখ মাকদুম, জেশ, ফৈয়াজ, শাকিল এবং অবশ্যই ক্যাইফি। এই মর্মস্পর্শী কবিদের রচনাগুলো আরও গভীর ও সুন্দরতর শরীরে শ্রোতাদের কাছে পৌঁছেছিল যখন বেগম গজল হিসেবে সেগুলো গেয়েছিলেন। তাঁর আত্মবিশ্বাসী ও বিরল দক্ষতার সুরারোপ গানগুলোর চেহারা বদলে দিত। বিভিন্ন রাগের ব্যবহারও তাঁর গাওয়া গজলগুলোকে প্রচলিত গজল থেকে আলাদা চেহারা দিয়েছিল। তাঁর গানের জনপ্রিয়তা উর্দু ভাষার পরিচিত না থাকা, বলায় অনভ্যস্ত শ্রোতাদের কাছেও পৌঁছে দিয়েছিল। অস্বীকার করার কোনও উপায় নেই যে, বেগমের বিদায়ের পর একদা প্রবল জনপ্রিয় এই গান এখন ক্রমশ হারিয়ে যাচ্ছে।

গান হিসেবে গজল তার গায়কির সঙ্গে ভাষার সঙ্গে জড়িয়ে থাকা রাজনীতির শিকার হয়ে পড়েছে। আজকের দিনের রসিক শ্রোতাদের অভিজ্ঞতা এই সত্য তুলে ধরবে। ১৯৫০ বা ১৯৬০-এর দশকেও যেভাবে উর্দু উচ্চারণ করা হত, তাকে ধ্রুপদী বলে স্বীকার করতে কোনও অসুবিধা হত না। যাঁরা উর্দু গজলের নিয়মিত বা অভ্যস্ত শ্রোতা নন, বিশেষ গুরুত্বপূর্ণ শব্দের উচ্চারণের বিচ্যুতি খেয়াল করবেন না। সুপরিচিত গজলের গায়কির এতটাই বিচ্যুতি ঘটেছে যে এখন আর ‘গজল’ আর ‘গীত’-এর মধ্যে পার্থক্য আরও ক্ষীণ চেহারা নিয়েছে। আশা করা যায় বেগম আখতারের এই জন্মশতবর্ষে এইসব দুঃখজনক ত্রুটি সম্পর্কে সংবাদ মাধ্যমগুলো তাদের সদর্থক ভূমিকা গ্রহণ করবে এবং উর্দু কবিতার শ্রোতারাও গজলশিল্পী অবিস্মরণীয়া বেগম আখতারের সেই দিনগুলো আবার ফিরিয়ে আনতে সচেষ্ট হবে।

SAYANTIKA GHOSH, PhD Research Scholar, RBU, SACT, Gobardanga Hindu College

“The history of men’s opposition to women’s emancipation is more interesting perhaps than the story of that emancipation itself.” 

                                                                                          Virginia Woolf-

Introduction

Women of the nation are considered to be the backbone of every society. The introduction of  actresses in Bengali Theatre during 1870 gave a new area to the society. Inspired by the English theatre, the Bengali theatre groups practiced their performances in the houses of the elite people, who are known as “bhadralokhs” of Bengal. The actresses who joined theatre then, were the children from the prostitute area. The talented children from the prostitute areas in order to supplement their income.  Bipin Chandra Pal, in his autobiography mentioned that in the Brahmo Samaj the use of girls from the prostitute families were denied. It was also noted that the presence of the Brahmo women in the audience were also rejected because it was disreputable that they see the performance of the prostitutes.

In the patriarchal society actresses pulled up their socks, performed at their level best but was not appreciated. Some actresses gained acceptance and also earned praise by their performances but their expectations were smashed by their male counterparts. A new change was visible , the actresses were seen as the site of reform. Some men like Bipin Candra Pal, Upendranath Das , Girish Ghosh, according to them theatre can be more informative, than only being the provider of entertainment. Men then performed as the actresses. Changed themselves into women’s character. Girish Ghosh pointed out by saying that the theatre owners did not bring children from the prostitution areas, rather no respectable women came forward for the performances in theatre. Upanendranath Das wanted to give the women the required respect for which he did not allowed the women to join theatre after their marriage. Binodini wanted  to get money to built Star Theatre but was not rewarded by Girish Chandra Ghosh , who did not want the theatre to be named after her. Amar kotha (1863-1941), Binodini , recalls her past. She met Ganga Baiji, they were very close to each other, they named their relationship “Golap”. She was then introduced by Bhuban Mohan Neogi who gave her new life.

                 During the 19^th century , theatre provided an “Alternative Space” for the women in order to implore them to dream and to achieve their goals. The idea of employing women to potray the female roles in the theatre was highlighted by Madhusudan Dutta. In 1881- Tagore’s niece Sushila Performed in the role of Balika and Saraswati in Balmiki Pratibha. In 1877- the women of the household successfully enacted their parts in Aleekbabu. Theatre gave Binodini, freedom, exposure, which was otherwise impossible for a girl of her background. She acted in Haralal Roy’s play Hemlata, Sita in Sitaharan Rabanbadh, Draupadi in Pandaver Agyatabas, in Bankimchandra’s Durgeshini, she played both the role of Ayesha and Tilottoma.

Theatre personalities of West Bengal has played a major role towards popularizing the culture of Indian theatre in the country. With the maturity and progress of the Indian drama theatre personalities of West Bengal gained much importance and recognition. The history of Bengali theatre begins its journey with Goloknath Das. Later Bengali theatre witnessed much change and as a result gained a rather contemporary touch which time. Theatre in Bengal continued its journey with the “Kirtivillas” of Yogendra Chandra Gupta, with the ‘Bhadrajuna’ of Taracharan, ‘Kulin Kula Sarvasva’ of Ramanarajaha Tarkaratna,  and indeed with the ‘Neel Darpan’ of Dinabandhu Mitra. With the social dramas of Girish Ghosh and then with the historical dramas of Dwijendra Lal Roy, Bengali theatre gained its desired contour whilst marking the beginning of the realistic drama in Bengal.

Binodini Dasi  who is widely familiar as Noti Binodini, an actress ancedently of her time, a performer, a well known personality who is breathing in the hearts of Bengali theatre lover. The time when Binodini  Dasi appeared in theatre the situation of that time period was different than today what we get to see. The foundation  of  Public  Theatre in Bengal  was during 1872 where the platform was rulled by men , no women were seen nor in the stage and also not in the audience.  Later  when  women participated , the first generation of actresses included from the prostitution area. Women were provided an alternative space in the platform, where they were given chance to explore their creativity and to create a new platform for them.  Binodini came in the second phase of theatre in Bengal. Elokeshi, Ganga Baiji, Golap Sundori, Khetramoni, Lakkhimoni  and  Rajkumari were known as the first phase of native actresses.

Women as a destroyer- Amarendranath Datta, his biography was written by his nephew Ramapatti Datta, is a tale of the life of sin. Amarendranath Datta left his studies, moved out of his family , after his father death he took away his share from the family not only for the expense for the classic theatre, he established, but also for the daily necessities and extravagance of the actors and actresses he patronized. He neglected his wife, left his family for his mistress Tarasundari. It is perceptible here, on one side we observe the concept of “Sisterhood” where one women supports the other female character to complement oneself.

This concept is widely found in “Tin-Er-Talwar” where we notice how two women of different age group embraces eachother in all difficulties, may be in retaining scripts or in sacrificing one’s chastity.

 “ ময়না ৷  আমি কালীঘাটে  জোড়া  পাঠা দেব৷ শয়তানটা এমন ভাবে তাকায় মনে হয় আমার জামা নেই ৷

বসু ৷   জানিস ময়না ? বাবাকে , আমাতে  আর হাবিবুর মিলে চার বছর আগে থেটার – বাড়ির  নকসা করিয়ে রেখেছি l এইবার শিকে ছিঁড়েছে ৷ সে কি হৌস, কি সাজঘর, কি এস্টেজ — তুই  ভাবতে পারবি না” (2)

Raising voice against the wrong made both Basundhara and Moyna happy, as they never wanted Birkrishna to interfere or his prefence in their theatre. Birkrishna with his nasty mind thought,wanted moyna as his partner, after knowing that Birkrishna would give away the theatre to Captain Babu they both giggled and visualized their own theatre, their play, performances together though being esch others entrant.

Again –

“বসু৷ –  কথা গুলো বলছো বীরকেষ্টর মতন —মুলধন,দাঁও ব্যাবসা৷ তুমি থিয়েটার খুলছো না,  খুলতে যাচ্ছ গদি,দোকান, দালালির আপিস ৷ সেখানে ময়নার সতীত্ব বিক্রি হবে ৷”(3)

Here we see how a woman stands by a woman by protesting for her innocence. In the patriarchal society questioning a man was not accepted easily by the society but here we see how Basundhara praises Mayna not to deface herself interms of condition made by Birkrishna an old wicked man. and captain and asks her to run away. “বসু৷  ভিখ মেগে যাব ৷ ময়না,চলে যা কাপ্তেনবাবুর এই বাগান বাড়িতে নাচওয়ালি হয়ে থাকিস নে মা, চলে যা ৷”(4) She asks her not be a dancer or not to spend her life like an whore or an other woman.

In the play “Putul Khela” ,

“ সেই থেকে বুক ধক ধক করে ওঠে, কোন কাজ মন দিয়ে করতে পারি না৷ চিন্তাটা কেমন যেন  হঠাৎ সাপের মতো গায়ের মধ্যে কিউবি করে  উঠতো ৷ এক সময় মনে হত অন্ধকার  ছাদের ওপর গিয়ে চিৎকার করে কাঁদি—-অথচ কিছু করতে পারতাম না৷ কাউকে বলতে পর্যন্ত পারতুম না৷ কেবল জোর করে নিজের ভাবনাকে নিজের মনের মধ্যে পুরে রাখতুম” (5)

Here we find Bulu who seeks help to save her marriage to her friend Krishna, explains her feeling, how restless she was and every moment made her feel to shout and cry from the top of roof but she had no option to do so instead had to swallow all the pain within herslef and however Krishna supports her in her tough situation.

 In “Rudali” by Usha ganguly, the role of Sanichari, Bikhni and Parbatia in terms of empowering eachother reflects ‘Sisterhood’

“Sanichari. – You’re asking me why not? Once a young woman goes to work for Lachman Singh, the only place she’s fit for is the whorehouse.” (6)

Knowing Lachman Singh’s nature, not having good bond with her daughter in law, still Sanichari denies Budhua( sanichari’s son) to not to send his wife to Lachman’s place as women reach there never returns and turns out to be whore. Whereas, in Babu culture we find how a woman be’s the other woman’s foe.

“Bikhni.- Arre Sanichari, we’ve bruised our foreheads and rent our hair mourning for others; will there be anyone to mourn for us when we die?

Sanichari.- Of course, there will be! The jackals will howl for us, the hyenas and dogs will howl for us….Come on, let’s get our thins together for tomorrow morning.” (7)

Being eachother’s support, having no dear one’s promises eachother to be together in every difficulties. This highlights how sisterhood challenges to empower women in all odds.

The works of the prominent theatre personalities of West Bengal thus blossom forth the rich history of Indian Theatre, which stands as the portrayal of a journey from the eposes to the contemporary style of naturalistic productions. The  “Renaissance” was observed  between 1795 and 1890 in Bengali Theatre. This time span spotted an extreme and comprehensive change in capability composition in the subcontinent of Indian history. During the quiver of Social movement smacked the Bengali stage, helped to highlight women related issues through scripts and performances. In the year 1856, A Play on Widow Remarriage named as “Bibaho Natok” by Umesh Chandra Mitra scripted based on Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s Widow Remarriage movement. Then Theatre was diligently stimulated for community purpose by The Jorasanko Thakurbari , the home of Tagore, in Calcutta. The emergence of women figure was latterly contemporary establishment for the upper middle class families in Calcutta and it took time for people to accept it and somehow affected the gender equation at the working platform. The female characters were found both as cumulative and unscrupulous, independent or prosper, devoted native and conciuosly self-centered.

Conclusion-

The participation of women in Theatre have encouraged their identity from women within the four wall’s to the women as playright, directors, actresses. From the early centuries to the recent era, there are many women who have engaged themselves with theatre from different angle and perspective. Directors, are the one’s to visualize a story and depicts it into a performance. She/He recreates and creates a play according to his imagination, thought by fulfilling his or her desire. Along with the male director’s in theatre, we get to see many women director’s, mesmerizingly potraying the current scenario of the society or by enacting the played plays. Thus the struggle, sacrifices made by the women of our society gave a wide range of tenet to the Women in Bangla Theatre.

References –

1. https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/virginia-woolf-136-birthday-google/
2. Dutta, Utpal. “Tin-Er-Talwar”, Jatio Sahitya Parishad,pg 75
3. Dutta, Utpal. “Tin-Er-Talwar”, Jatio Sahitya Parishad,pg 77
4. Dutta, Utpal. “Tin-Er-Talwar”, Jatio Sahitya Parishad,pg 77
5. Mitra, saoli. “Nora, Bulu, O Amra” ( Nora, Bulu and we). Natyachnita, Vol-26 (1-6) 128-146 (A Bengali theatre journal published from kolkata) Munday, Jeremy(ed). Translation as Intervention. Continuum 2007.
6. Katyal. Anjum,”RUDALI, MAHASWETA DEVI , USHA GANGULY”, Seaull Publication, pg-123.
7. Katyal. Anjum,”RUDALI, MAHASWETA DEVI , USHA GANGULY”, Seaull Publication, pg-180.

Aritri Majumder, SACT,Department of Music, Gobardanga Hindu College, Ph.D. Research Scholar, University of Calcutta

Tradition, the word which carries out many things in one boat. Culture and tradition are interdependent where tradition is a boat and culture plays the role of a sail. Kolkata, the city of joy, borrows its cultural tradition from a long time. On the other side Kolkata always greets and accepts new, so Kolkata is a place where tradition and trend stay side by side. Kolkata is a place of musical heritage as well as it was once the heart of Indian classical music. During British Colonial rule the scenario of India where a tide of transition took place in Indian culture. An obvious effect took place in Kolkata, the city of musical heritage, where classical music was already existed and continued a strong musical tradition of pure classical music from a long time. In 1856, when Nawab Wajed Ali Shah came to the city, a new form of music was entered with him. Nawab Wajed Ali Shah was a great patron of Performing and Fine Arts. So naturally the beautiful musical genre of Lucknow or Awadh gradually laid out its fragrance. It is very relevant to say that the gradual transition of musical field in Kolkata, there was a contribution of some forgotten muses who silently pioneering gave light and paved the way of new genre of classical and semi classical music as well.

Hindustani Classical and Semi classical music is itself a beauty and integral part of beautiful Indian culture where women performers continuously make exceptional style and keep mark on Indian musical culture. History always tries to reveal the truth or fact but unfortunately an unknown curtain covers some unknown fact about women performers and their contribution. It is a history of women performers who were known as – Nagarbadhu, Devdasi, Kanjari, Tawaif, Baiji and many more in different period of time. In Mughal period, the court was dazzled by courtesans and their performances. These courtesans acclaimed a special position and respect for their performance as well as talent. Music, Dance, Poetry and Courtesans were not different from each other. There was a profound relation where emotion, sentiment, ups and downs, rise and fall even life of a courtesan secured with Music-Dance-Poetry. These women performers established a new genre of Hindustani Classical Music and patronized the field of semi-classical or second stream of music. But their entire journey was too much uneven because the perception of so called elite society disgraced them continuously.

Kolkata was stalwart of performing art and the development and changes was taken place through the women performers who were called as ‘Baiji’. Nawab Wajed Ali Shah came with a huge number of dancers and singers not only that, he brought with him a new style of music. Dhrupad was well practiced form of Kolkata from long time. This time Khayal and Thumri started to bloom and flourish rapidly. Colonial Bengal, during 19^th century was introduced with a new era and also with Bengal renaissance where effect of British Colonialism or orientalism took place. European thinking idea, educational movement-all kept a deep impact on Bengali Culture throughout this period of time. (Mitra, 2017)

Metiyaburj was purchased by Nawab Wajed Ali Shah but after coming at Kolkata Nawab realized that he was like an outsider and he missed his dynasty badly. So he decided to construct and began an extension of another Lucknow dynasty with the permission of British Government. Chota Lucknow and beautiful township was established like Nawabi Lucknow .So naturally the culture of Lucknow or Awadh touched Kolkata very fast. The fragrance of music, dance, poetry, recitation, conversation, attire, style-everything was spread and enthralled the Kolkata culture. And ‘They’ enchanted Kolkata with their mesmerizing voice with Thumri, they were Tawaif, the women performers. Many Tawaifs migrated from Lucknow to Kolkata; they all started a new journey with their beautiful performances. Nawab tried to keep the style and tradition of Mughal, and this corner of Kolkata became a place of Lucknow culture. The elite society of Kolkata enjoyed and accepts the Lucknowi Gharana.

Durbar of Nawab in Metiyaburj was a blessing for Bengali Culture. A new musical genre was introduced. Durbar of Nawab was the witness of Lucknowi Gharana and its exillence where the ambience brought back the lost glory of Lucknowi ‘Mijaj’.’Bengali Bhadrolok’ specially Babu class gradually took interest in Lucknowi culture Raja Sourindra Mohan Tagore was a great patron of music on that time. He was welcomed and greeted by Wajed Ali Shah and enjoyed the essence of Lucknowi Thumri. Not only that, the Dhrupad exponents of Bishnupur Gharana like Jadu Bhatta, Aghore Nath Chakraborty were the great admirers of Durbari Thumri. Nawab himself composed many famous composition of Thumri and many Raginis also. At this time, the women performers, Tawaif were experts of classical music and classical art form. New talented personalities introduced the lighter form of classical music. Song of Tawaifs buzzed everywhere of Kolkata.

Bengal especially Kolkata gave a new name and identity of these Tawaif as ‘Baiji’. Before explaining about Baiji it is more important to explain about the term ‘Baiji’. The term ‘Baiji’ was derived from Madhyapradesh or Rajasthan. In Rajasthan ‘Bai’ means mother or elder sister, for an example –Meera Bai, and to give respect ‘ji’ is added. In Maharashtra this term was also customized .It is also said that Bai means women dancer where ji is for upper class. There were four divisions of Baijis, such as Bai-only singer, Jaan-singer and dancer both, Kanij-who only welcomed and entertained the guests, Khanagi-who included physical favor as entertainment.

Under the colonial canopy so called Bengali Bhadrolok existed with their intense and relishment with a balanced manner. European culture did not impede their passion for classical music and dance. Kolkata was cultural centre, and also a place where intellectuality and artistic splendor stayed side by side in British Colonial India .Zamindars of Kolkata already accepted, enjoyed North Indian Classical Music, they were passionate by it from early 19^th century. After that Bengali elite society happily accepted the Lucknowi music dance with its performers. Khayal, Thumri and Dance-all were patronized by the rich patrons of Kolkata. The mansions of rich patrons were lightened up by expert singers and dancers-who were called ‘Baiji’, the Tawaifs of Lucknow, who created more passion, fascination, excitement by their voice, by their gesture, posture and overall by their talent. Before Wajed Ali Shah the elite society and Zamindars were already witnessed the Lucknowi Gharana infrequently. Rich Bengalis invited famous singers and dancers from Lucknow, Delhi occasionally. These renowned Tawaifs were given prominent position in the court of Bengali Zamindar as ‘Baiji’ such as famous Nickee, Begum Jaaan, Supan Jaan, Hingool, Nanni Jaan and many more sparkled in the court in early 19th century Kolkata. Kotha (the large adornment of women performers), Baganbari, Jalshaghar-these were the place where flow of music and dance engrossed every corner. These Baijis undoubtedly the ornaments of Hindustani Semi-classical music. They were well trained by pure classical music (Dhrupad-Dhamar-Khayal) but the ‘mithas’ of semi-classical (Thumri-Dadra-Chaiti-Kajri-Sawan) embellished the Mehefil more. These talented Divas were able to change the preferences of listening music.

A different perspective of society made them ‘other women’ or treated them as pariahs, but the sarcasm is their flair of art or art forms (music-dance-poetry) was the ravishment of elite society who gave them different names, different place, but a woman performer on that time, maybe she was Baiji or Tawaif, was a microcosm where talent and entertainment belonged together. A shadowy, convoluted world of Baiji gave another definition of life where they were categorized, though the created new artistic language after being categorized marginalized. Historical context can give some glimpses of their life but their voice still recalls to open the untitled page of their life.

In Kolkata, from the beginning, there was a tradition of classical music. Music patrons invited many Baijis in their residence occasionally, such as birthday party, marriage ceremony, Durga Puja etc. That was a culture and status maintain also. Metiaburj, Bowbajar, Chitpore were famous places where the flowers of music bloomed and nurtured by the women performers as well as Baijis and there were many Gharana’s culture assorted in Bengal through Baiji culture. Lucknow, Benaras, Delhi-all Gharanas were introduced by the Baijis, because they took Taalim from music maestros of different Gharana and Kolkata happily accepted the mixed culture of music. Many places of Kolkata became a centre of cultural hub; Bowbazar was one of the most renowned places where these talented women organized musical soirees for these ‘Samajhdar’ or patron of music as well as their voice. ‘Mujra’ and ‘Kotha’-these two words were deeply connected with Kolkata culture. It was another story that in later years these courtesans became the trainer of many singers of Kolkata.

There were many non-Bengali courtesans who settled down in Kolkata and made a place for themselves. The famous courtesans were Bari Malka Jaan, Gauhar Jaan, Malka jaan Agrewali, Janki Bai and many more. And there were many Bengali famous courtesans, such as-Harimoti, Jadumoni, Manadasundori, Krishnabhamini, Aschryamoyee, Pannamoyee, Manadasundari, Angurbala and Indubala. Being an outcaste to the society their contribution to Hindustani Classical Music and also to cultural ground of Kolkata was undeniable.

It is very hard fact that patriarchal structure where male singer got privilege there how women performer stood and proved themselves on that era. A very few Baijis were lucky to steadily face the entire struggle and got their minimum respect as an artist. Actually in everywhere these women performers or Baiji became a statuesque under the elite, rich patronages. In Mughal period these courtesans earned respect, position, stability. In British Colonial period they got or earned some respect from some aristocrat or music patrons like Babus, Zamindars or Rajas. These aristocrats organized musical evening in their ‘Baithak Khana’ where mesmerizing voices of Baijis echoed in every corner of the hall.Hindustani Classical Music always was in the heart of Bengali culture. Great patrons of music like-Seth Dulichand, Radharaman Roy, Nilmoni Mullick, Rupchand Roy, Gopimohan Deb, Raja Rajkrishna Deb, Raja Nabokrishna Deb, Raja Rammohan Roy and others. They were actual ‘Samajhdar’ of classical music on that era in Kolkata.

It is very necessary to say about some music patrons on that time, especially some royal families who were actual famous patrons of art and culture, such as Sobhabazar Raj Family and Raja Nabokrishna Dev. In the time of Durga Puja and other occasions, Baijis were invited in Sobhabazar Rajbari. Sobhabazar Rajbari was the place where performing and fine arts were revered by Rajas and gave all kind of support to the artists. Sobhabazar Rajbari is not only historical place,it is also a cultural heritage of Kolkata. During colonial period many Raja and Zamindars was influenced by music and there was a status maintain competition where ‘Baiji Gaan’ was a obvious part. But Sobhabazar Rajbari was an instance of true cultural place where music, dance was patronized by Rajas. It was a custom that during Durga Puja famous Baijis were invited to perform in Rajbari. Besides Durga Puja, in marriage ceremony, birth day parties famous Baijis performed. Not only in Kolkata, was the whole Bengal well introduced with Baiji culture. And a new form of music as well as culture was established by them.

Pathurighata was famous for three glorious aristocrat families-Tagore, Ghosh and Mullick family. Tagore family is very familiar to all. The performing and fine arts were got a new dimension from this Tagore family. Their aesthetic perception always created new thought motivated others. So it was very natural that classical music was also felicitated by Tagore family. Musicologist Raja Sourindra Mohan Tagore encouraged and helped Jadumoni (the Bengali courtesan) who was a talented singer and also an Esraj player. The ten prominent names from Tagore family who promoted and uplifted the melodies of Baiji gaan they were-Dwarkanath Tagore, Ramhari Tagore, Darpanarayan Tagore and Prasanna Tagore.

There another famous family was Ghosh family. The contribution of this family to performing art, especially music, is unforgettable and undeniable. Trailokya Nath Ghosh played Pakhawaj and Sitar not only that, this family patronized renowned, famous Dhrupad-Khayal singer like Jay Karanji, Tappa singer Ramchandra Chattopadhya and eminent singer Radhika Prasad Goswami from Bishnupur Gharana. They all were regular guests in Ghosh residence. Many renowned noted personalities like Vishnudigambar Paluskar, Faiyaz Khan were frequent visitors in the court of Ghosh family. Gauharjan, Malkajan, Noorjahan, Zohrabai-these famous Baijis were regular performer in Ghosh Mansion where Baijis got a position as a performer publicly.

Mullick family was one of the most influential families in Pathurighata and two most important persons were Jadunath Mullick and Manmatha Nath Mullick. They were cultural patron of that time. Musical concert was arranged regularly and there was an auditorium in the palace. They patronized many singers.

Each city and town has its own cluster, own story where history tries to draw the socio-cultural status. Kolkata is not exceptional but where music was strolled in every alley, yes there are many known-unknown history knocks the door again and again. Lucknow, Benaras, Kolkata-these three cities were the witnesses of courtesans’ culture, where Lucknow and Kolkata was connected by Nawab Wajed Ali Shah. Mid 19^th century was a golden era for Kolkata as well as Bengal where Thumri easily mixed with the culture of the city. So it becomes obvious to revisit and try to create some anecdotes.

It was not only her grace and glamour; it was her voice and style of presentation which always attracted everyone. Raja Rammohan Roy invited Nicky Bai to the Jalsaghar of his Baganbaari at Maniltala in Kolkata where Nicky Bai made a magical atmosphere of Music.She was also invited from Thakur Bari for evening Majlis. The news papers of that time in Kolkata reported about Sir Charles D’Oily and Nicky Bai relationship. Sir D’Oily covered long distance to visit Nicky Bai and her performance. Like Nicky Bai there were Begum Jaan, Supan Jaan, Nanni Jaan and many more who were also invited to performing the Jalsaghar of Rajbari or Zamindar Bari.On that time Baijis were the headlines of newspapers as was Nicky,but names of the Babus were not mentioned. Nicky bai  started her career on 1808 or 1812 at the Majlish of Rajkrishna Dev and she ended her Majlish on 1832 at Nach Mahal of Asutosh Dev. After that she disappeared, maybe she was unhonoured, unlamented.

It is very pertinent to say about ‘Jalasaghar’, the movie, by Satyajit Roy, written by Tarashankar Bandopadhya, where music loving Zamindar Biswambhar Roy, standing on the edge of financial ruin, refuse to relinquish the lavish life style and tried to maintain his Zamindari by last penny, and he invited renowned Baijis to keep alive this high status. It was became a competition between Zamindars to maintain their social position. But it is also very truth many Zamindars were real patrons of music.Ray beautifully exhibited the era,the culture,,the music room,Baiji,passion and down fall.Satyajit Ray fantastically represented music and Dance of that era by Begum Akhtar and Roshan Kumari on screen.153 years old Nimtita Rajbari got again life by Ray.

Abanindranath Tagore also mentioned about Bhuban Bai,famous Nanhi Bai  of Lucknow,and Sree Jaan who sang whole night with her sweet cuckoo like mesmerizing voice,she was famous for her voice and she was an expert in Kanada and Bhairavi.Munsalimwali Gauhar,Johra Bai,Mustari Bai-they all captivated Kolkata by their voice and charm.In In the Nachmahal of Nabakrishna Dev,Munia Bai,daughter of Roshni Bai,made Clive fainted by her grace,beauty,talent.Many more beautiful talented Baijis were:- Supan Jaan,Nanni Jaan,Ratan Bai,Bunnu Jaan,Kashmiri Bai,Tulsi Bai,Misri Bai,Zinat Bai,Adda Bai,Amirul,Alphina.Many unknown fact,story,myth was grounded under the din and bustle of Kolkata.Mahefil,Mujra,Jalsa,Nach Mahal,Jalsaghar-these terms are very known to us.But a Mahefil got its charm by the Baijis who were like Gandharva Kanya.They are their own example.

Malka Jaan, who was a Shayer Tawaif of Benaras, her fame laid out from Benaras to Kolkata. She sang Thumri, composed by Nawab Wajed Ali Shah, in front of him; she engrossed Nawab and became court singer. Malka Jaan learned Bengali and recorded Bengali songs also. On that time Kolkata and Babu was fascinated by Malka Jaan.Gauhar Jaan,daughter of Malka Jaan,the icon,was disciple of Bechu Mishra, Bindadin Maharaj, Ganapat Rao Bhaiya Sahib, Dhrupadiya Jaal Bai, court musician Bamacharan Bhattachariya, Kirtaniya Ramesh Chandra Dutta. She was most talented person who made her musical debut at the age of thirteen. Her personal life or life story can make everyone cry to know which phases of life she faced, how much struggle made her The Gauhar Jaan. Kolkata was lucky to have a Baiji or Tawaif like Her. In 1902 Kolkata’s best known Baiji became the first classical singer who recorded for Gramophone Company of England. Her first record was released in India, it was Raag Jogiya. Her approach to Music and attitude made her icon. Gauhar Jaan was a novel herself, where she was the novelist and the protagonist also. Kolkata as well as Bengal was blessed by the Gauhar. There was a famous phase-“Gauhar ke bina Mahefil/Jaise shaadi ke bina Dulhan.”

If Gauhar Jaan was moon then Janki Bai,Jaddan Bai, Ladli Jaan, Husna Jaan were those dazzling stars who covered the whole sky with Gauhar. Their presence made every Jalsa or Mahefil special. They were main attraction where voice and charm were harmonized beautifully. Janki Bai Chappan Churivali (with 56 scars) came from Vaggeyakar community. Between 1907 to 1929 she recorded 250 songs. Her acquirement in light classical music like Dadra, Hori, Kajri, Chaiti , Bhajan, Ghazal was undoubtedly conquered the mind of audiences.

In 1920, Kolkata was introduced with a stage actress who came from Awadhi culture-Akhtari Bai. Her contribution in Ghazal was undeniable. She made Ghazal unique and created a position in main stream. Thumri and Dadra got a new style in her voice. Her struggle, her journey made her Begum Akhtar from Akhtari Bai.

It is proved in history of Music British Colonialism kept a deep impact on musical field also. A changing perception, a changing genre, changing concept about music took place where Bengali Baijis and women performers belonged with their splendid art form. We get some names of Bengali Baijis in previous discussion. Manadasundari who recorded huge number of songs of her time. Her specialization was in Tappa and Tap Khayal. She was well trained in Indian Classical Music. She achieved patronage from Desh Bondhu Chittaranjan Das and Maharaja of Natore.Her famous Bengali Khayal was- ‘Kotobar Ashiya…’

Like Manada Sundari Dasi it is an obligation to say about Indubala and Angurbala also. Indubala was famous women performer who shared the stage with many Ustads and Baijis. Also Gauhar Jaan trained her. It was Angurbala Devi was known as ‘Kolkata ki Koyel’, in Bengali she was ‘Banglar Bulbul’. She recorded 500 songs. On that time singing was an offense for women, but Angurbala Devi made it wrong. Her voice reached every corner of Bengal.

The cultural scenario of Mughal India was totally different for these women performers. It was a glorious time for Music and Dance. British perception never accepted these women performers or Tawaif or Baiji as artist, they were only entertainer for them. They never understood the Indian cultural sentiment and emotion; they misunderstood Indian Dance art also. On the other side Social Purity Association also went against the dance form of India. Late 19^th century and early 20^th century was the time period of Anti-Nautch campaign. Arya Samaj and Bramho Samaj were the social reformers; according to their opinion these women performers were harmful for civilized society. Nautch girls and their performance were compared with hell and evil. ‘Nautch’ –the word was misinterpreted by British Raj and so called Purity Association. Anti-Nautch campaign changed the whole landscape of Indian art culture.

Baijis were versatile artists and divine child of performing art but they were stigma for society. Baiji culture in Kolkata was slowly lost its flame .Zamindar, Babu Culture was also faded away. Many Baijis had to choose other profession like Theatre, Cinema etc. An era, socially culturally started its last journey, a community went to another cultural domain and slowly disappeared. But a new horizon was opened for women performer.

Reference List:

• Sing,Lata,2017,Raising the Curtain, Recasting women performers in India, Orient Black Swan Pvt. Ltd,Hyderabad
• Sampath, Vikram, 2010, My Name Is Gauhar Jaan, Rupa Publication India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi
• Dewan,Saba,2019,Tawaifnama,Westland Publication Pvt. Ltd,Chennai
• Muhuri,Reba,1986,Thumri-O-Baiji,Pratibhas,Kolkata
• Nevile, Pran, 2009,Nautch Girls of Raj, Penguin Random House Haryana, India
• Mitra,Sudipta,2017,Pearl by the River, Rupa Publication, New Delhi
• Shah,Vidya,2016,Jalsa,Tulika Books
• Ghosh, Sankh 2021,The‘curious’case of ‘tawaif’ and the musical heritage of North Kolkata,Article,timesofindia.com
• Raha, Srijit 2021,Baijis of Calcutta: The Hidden Grand Maestros of Indian Classical Music,Article,medium.com
• Bhura,Sneha 2018,How Satyajit Ray immortalised ‘a little known place called Nimtita’,Article,theweek.in

Banerjee,Anindya 2018,Custodians of a Rich Musical Heritage,Article,kolkatawire.com