Abstract

The historical discourse of music in Bengali literature traces the evolution of musical traditions from the early medieval period to the modern era. Beginning with the Charyapada, the earliest known Bengali literature, this study explores the deep connection between music and literary expression in Bengal. The influence of Buddhist Sahajiya traditions, the emergence of Vaishnava Padavali, and the contributions of poets such as Jayadeva and Baru Chandidas highlight the synthesis of devotional themes with musical forms. The paper also examines the impact of the Pala and Sen dynasties on court music and the subsequent integration of North Indian classical ragas into Bengali music. Furthermore, it discusses the significance of Mangalkavya, Gitagovinda, and Shrikrishna Kirtan in shaping Bengal’s lyrical traditions. The research underscores the continuity of musical heritage, culminating in the works of Rabindranath Tagore, who fused medieval and modern elements. Through historical references and textual analysis, this paper provides insights into how Bengali music evolved alongside its literature, reflecting socio-religious transformations over the centuries.

Keywords: Bengali literature, Charyapada, Vaishnava Padavali, Mangalkavya, Gitagovinda, Classical Music, Court Music, Raga-Ragini, Medieval Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore

Introduction

The historical discourse of music in Bengali literature reflects a rich and evolving tradition that intertwines with the cultural and literary progress of Bengal. The early period of Bengali literature and culture extends from the 8th to the 13th century AD, followed by the medieval period from the 13th to the 19th century. During the reign of the Pala and Sena dynasties, Bengali literature, music, and culture saw significant advancements. The Pala Empire’s glory period spanned from the mid-8th century AD to the mid-9th century AD, during which Bengali literature began to flourish. Before this, literary and musical compositions in Bengal were primarily in Sanskrit or Prakrit. Understanding the musical background of Bengal requires an exploration of its literary history.

The early period of Bengali literature and culture extends from the 8th to the 13th century AD and the medieval period from the 13th to the 19th century. During the reign of these Pal and Sen dynasties, Bengali literature, music and culture improved considerably. The glory period of the Pal Empire was from the middle of the 8th century AD to the middle of the 9th century AD. Bengali literature was first created during this Pal reign. Earlier, Bengali literature and music were composed either in Sanskrit or Prakrit. To know the musical background of Bengal, we have to search the history of art literature of Bengal. So far the Bengali literature of the 10th century is the first literature of Bengal that is Charyapad. It also tells a lot about the culture and music of the 10th century. There have already been many discussions about Charyapads in Bengali literature, research books have been written, numerous seminars have been held. The subject of Charyapad has come up in various ways about music, here I am discussing it in detail by referring to some of its facts – Bengali musical pursuits started after the creation of Bengali language and literature and it can be said that Bengalis started their first literature through music  which is known as Charyapad or Charcha Giti.

The Role of Charyapada in Early Bengali Music

One of the earliest known Bengali literary works is the Charyapada, composed in the 10th century. These verses, written by Buddhist Sahajiya and Shaiva Nathpanthi poets, serve as an important cultural and musical document of the time. Haraprasad Shastri discovered manuscripts of Charyapada in Nepal in 1907, later published under the title “Charyacharyavinishchaya,” which contained several kirtan songs with Sanskrit annotations (Shastri, 1916). Prabodhchandra Bagchi later compiled a Tibetan translation that contained 51 verses (Bagchi, 1931). The Charyapadas were written as Buddhist mystical teachings and often included Raga-Ragini prescriptions such as Patmanjari, Mallar, Kamod, Bhairavi, and Ramkri (Goswami, 2005, p. 142). These elements indicate that music was an integral part of the poetic and religious traditions of medieval Bengal.

Buddhist Siddhacharyas referred to their songs as “Charchagiti,” highlighting their role in religious and meditative practices. The language of the Charyapada, known as “Sandhya Bhasha” (twilight language), was a mix of Prakrit and Apabhramsha, intentionally obscure to convey esoteric meanings (Shastri, 1916). Haraprasad Shastri remarked, “Songs are like Vaishnava Kirtan; the name of the song is Charyapad” (Shastri, 1916). This suggests an early connection between the Charyapada and later Vaishnava musical traditions.

Not only the first step of literature, Bengali music started with this ‘Charyapad’. It is a collection of verses written in the form of hymns. Buddhist Sahagpanthi and Shaiva Nathpanthi wrote songs in Bengali language and their songs are the earliest compositions in Bengali language. Mahamahopadhyay Harprasad Shastri Mahashay brought some puthis from Nepal in 1907 AD. One of which is available as ‘Charyascharyavinishchaya’, which contains several kirtan songs and Sanskrit annotations. Each of the charyapas was collected by Haraprasad Shastri Mahashay. There were forty-six verses in this book, one of which was fragmentary. Later Prabochandra Bagchi compiled a Tibetan translation of these Charyapas, containing a total of 51 verses. The Charyapadas were originally written in the form of a series of Buddhist mystical teachings and exhortations. After that, he published the found puthis with some other puthis under the name Buddhgan and Doha. Whereas the Buddhist Siddhacharyas called their songs ‘charchagiti’.

During that period Buddhism was developed to propagate Buddhism. The Siddhacharyas there explored the deep mysteries of life from different perceptions of life. There were various solutions or answers to those mysteries in these verses. This suggests that the book was originally written for the simple Buddhist sages in which what they should do and what they should not do. That is, this code of conduct is not for everyone. This Charya enters only one heart in a million. That’s why the word Charya means all the rituals, judgments, living and eating, yoga, meditation, disciples and people’s association of the Buddhist simple saints of that time. At the top of every Charchapad has prescribed such Raga-Ragini like Patmanjari, Mallar, Kamod, Bhairavi, Ramkri, Bengali, Gurjari etc. Haraprasad Shastri Mahashay wrote – “Songs are like Vaishnava Kirtan, the name of the song is Charyapad. Even in those days there was Sankirtan and the songs of Kirtan were sung in Pada. But now the Pada of Kirtan is called only Pada, then Charyapad.” These are not lyric poems because they were sung, but the deep feelings and emotions of the individual mind are the main features of lyric poetry that emerged in the literature of Siddhacharyas. (Prabhatkumar Goswami, 2005, p.142). Charyagiti Prabandha Geet and as a category they belong to Viprakaran category. The Charyapads were sung, the melody rising and falling and the various tones of Raga-Ragini varied. Charyapadas are written in ‘Sandhya language’. Shastri Mahashay said about this language “Sandhya language means light-dark language, some light and some dark: some can be understood, some cannot be understood.

The names of the Padaktaras found in this book are – Aryadeva, Kanknapada, Kanhapada, Kukkuripad, Bhusukupada, Luipad, Shabarpad etc. Only 50 charyas have been found in the Charyascharyavinishcha and a vast body of literature has been created by such Buddhist hymns as in the Vaishnava Padavali-” Such a great lyrical literature was created by the writings of various poets. If these books were discovered, they would be equal to the volume of the entire Vaishnavism. Probably only 50 of those books were collected by Charyascharyavinishcha. By the end of the 11th century, the cultural contact between Western India and Bangladesh was strengthened and in terms of music, some of the traditional ragas of North India became known in Bangladesh, such as Malab, Gurjar, Kambaj, Gandhar, Karnat etc.

The Influence of Vaishnavism and Gita Govinda

During the Sena dynasty, court music flourished, and compositions like Jayadeva’s “Gita Govinda” emerged. Jayadeva, born in Kendubilva, was deeply devoted to music and poetry, and his work set a precedent for Vaishnava lyrical poetry in Bengal. “Gita Govinda” consists of 24 Sanskrit songs presented in 12 cantos, incorporating a variety of ragas such as Gurjari, Deshabarari, Vasant, Ramkiri, Malavagauda, and Bhairava (Goswami, 2005, p. 143). Suresh Chandra Chakraborty analyzed these songs and found that they included twelve ragas and five talas: Jati, Ektali, Rupaka, Nissar, and Ashtatal (Chakraborty, 1951). Scholars have debated the genre of “Gita Govinda”—William Jones called it a “pastoral drama,” while Von Schroeder described it as an “advanced type of journey” (Goswami, 2005, p. 144).

Following the Pala and Sena periods, Bengal saw the emergence of Mangalkavya, which flourished from the 12th to the 18th century. These lyrical compositions praised deities such as Manasa, Chandika, and Dharmathakur and were performed in a musical format. Professor Charu Bandyopadhyay noted that “Mangalkavyas were sung to promote the greatness and worship of the deity. That song was in a special tune and that tune was also called Mangal” (Bandyopadhyay, 1971). Similar to Charyapada, Mangalkavyas identified various ragas and raginis, reflecting the deep integration of music into Bengali literary traditions (Bhattacharya, 1959).

Besides, various religious songs were composed in Bengal at that time, such as ‘Gitgovindam’ composed by the court poet Jayadeva of Sen king Laxman Sen (1119-1205). It was a turn to sing. Jaydev was identified as born in Kendubilla village on the banks of the Ajay river on the Burdwan-Birbhum border. He was a particular lover of music. It can be said that Jayadeva was the best lyric poet after Kalidasa in Sanskrit literature. Although there are some disagreements, it can be said that the 24 Sanskrit verses in Gita Govinda are presented in the form of poetry consisting of 12 swargas with some minor relevant Sanskrit verses – ‘Radhamadhavyorjoyanti Jamuna Koole Rahkeloy’ – Jayadeva is the first to introduce the stream of Vaishnava lyrical poetry in Bangladesh by worshiping Radha-Madhav’s Vijan Keli at the Yamuna coast. The Gita Govinda is a narrative poem often interspersed with dialogues and songs by Krishna Radha and Sakhi. These lyrical verses are the lifeblood of the poem. The melodiousness and artistry of these songs captivates the common people. Sri Suresh Chandra Chakraborty Mahasaya in one of his essays (‘Vishvavani’, Falgun 1358) analyzed each song and showed that, “In these songs all the twelve ragas (Gurjari, Deshabarari, Vasant, Ramkiri, Malvaguda, Karnat, Desakh, Gandakiri, Malab, Bhairava, Barari, Bivas) and five talas (Jati, Ektali, Rupaka, Nissar, Ashtatal) are mentioned” According to Sangeet Shastri Bhatkhandeji the rhythms used in Gita Govinda are mostly South Indian and ten of the twelve ragas are described in the poet Lochan’s ‘Raaga Tarangini’ (compiled by Lochanacharya during Ballalasena’s time).  The name Gita Govinda is the sign of it. (Prabhat Kumar Goswami, 2005, page 143) However, judging the composition of this book, scholars have expressed different opinions – “William Jones called it pastoral drama, according to Lawson, it is lyrical drama. ), Von Schroeder calls this an advanced type of journey.” (Prabhatkumar Goswami, 2005, p.144).

After the Pala dynasty, Classical music flourished during the reign of King Ballal Sen of the Sen dynasty. It is known that many great masters used to come to the court of Laxman Sen. Regular practice of court music started from this Sen reign. It was during this reign that Oikatan Badan emerged along with Bina, Benu, Murj. During the period of the Pala kings, Prabandha music reached Bengal from North India.

A great musical tradition developed around the royal court of Bangladesh just before the thirteenth century. “Raag Tarangini” by Ballal Sen’s sabhakabi Lochan is an example of this. At this time the history of the music of Bengal becomes quite interesting. Charyapadas were composed till the twelfth century. As the discovery of these Charyapas created a stir in the field of Bengali literature, so did another Puthi discovered at the same time. Pandit Basant Ranjan Roy discovered this Puthi from Bishnupur and published it under the name ‘Shrikrishna Kirtan’. This statue was dated around 1600. From various researches it can be said that Srikrishnakirtan is a fifteenth century composition. Srikrishnakirtan by Baru Chandidas is a lyric of the lyrical genre composed in imitation of Gitagovinda. Only Radhakrishna’s pastimes are described in this book. Although it is a Krishnamangal poem, it is not a purely mythological Panchali poem like Maladhar Bose’s Shrikrishna Vijaya or Madhavacharya’s Shrikrishnamangal etc. “Language is also integrated, meek and bright. When this Ragbeni or Bakkeli was translated into Natyagi, then I can easily imagine that the audience would not be late in getting up.” (Sri Sukumar Sen).

The Development of Lyrical Traditions and Srikrishnakirtan

During the late medieval period, Srikrishnakirtan by Baru Chandidas became an important example of lyrical poetry in Bengal. This text, composed in the 15th century, was stylistically influenced by “Gita Govinda” and described the divine love of Radha and Krishna. Sukumar Sen commented on its performative aspects: “Language is also integrated, meek, and bright. When this Ragbeni or Bakkeli was translated into Natyagi, the audience would not be late in getting up” (Sen, 1957). The tradition of lyrical poetry in Bengal extended from Charyapada through Baru Chandidas to Rabindranath Tagore, illustrating an unbroken musical-literary lineage.

From the twelfth century to the eighteenth century, there was a communal lyrical literature describing the greatness of various gods and goddesses in Bengal, which is known as ‘Mangalkavya’ in Bengali literature. Another name for this is Astah Geet or Astah Sangeet.” (Ashutosh Bhattacharya, ‘History of Bengali Mangakavya’). Professor Charu Bandyopadhyay said – ‘Mangalkavyas were sung to promote the greatness and worship of the deity. That song was in a special tune and that tune was also called Mangal. This class of literature was created when the Hindu Sen rule was reacting to the Buddhist-dominated society of Bengal and the Muslim rule was being laid in its immediate interval. In the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries, powerful village poets gave a perfect form to various Mangal Kavyas. In the 18th century again Shakta’s Chandi, under the influence of Sriradha of Vaishnava, appeared charmingly. Around him came the song of victory. Similar to the Charyapas, different ragas and raginis are also identified in Mangalkavaya. The Raga-Ragini structure of Mangalkavya suggests that Bengalis well received the Raga-Ragini of Uchhanga sangeet. From Charcha Geeti to medieval lyrical poetry, which continues today, Amitrakshara has borne its traces from Brajangana by the inventor Michael Madhusudan to Bhanusingha’s Padabali and Gitanjali by the universal poet Rabindranath Tagore.

The Transition to Modern Bengali Song

From the 12th century to the 18th century, Bengali literature remained largely lyrical and was performed with accompaniment from mandira, mridanga, and nupur. Captain Willard observed that “Indian music arrived at its greatest height during the flourishing period of Indian Monarchs and princes” but saw a decline following the medieval period (Willard, 1834). This suggests that while classical music thrived during Hindu rule, it underwent transformation with the changing political landscape.

The historical trajectory of Bengali music and literature reveals a continuous evolution from Buddhist Charyapada to Vaishnava kirtans and Mangalkavyas. The Raga-Ragini structures in these compositions indicate the deep musical sensibilities of Bengalis, influencing subsequent genres and traditions. From Charypada to Tagore’s “Gitanjali,” Bengali music and literature have retained a lyrical essence, highlighting their inseparable connection.

The early era of Bengali literature extends from the beginning of Bengali literature from the tenth century AD to the end of the twelfth century. From the beginning of the thirteenth century AD, Bengal is considered to be the beginning of the Middle Ages. During this period, a new era began in the education and culture of Bengal as a result of various foreign invasions. Captain Willard mentioned that in india music arrived at its greatest height during the flourishing period of Indian Monarch and princes. Just a little before the Mohamedan conquest and its subsequent depravity and decline since then closed the scene with the usual catastrophy.  Two points emerge from the above comments. First, the golden age of ancient music ended with Hindu rule. Secondly, the quality of Indian music appears to have been on a downward trend towards the beginning of the Middle Ages. Another thing to be said about this comment is that the early music nearly died out with the beginning of the Middle Ages and the beginning of a new musical style. Until the mid-eighteenth century, Bengali literature was lyrical and sung in ensembles with mandira, mridanga, nupur and chamar accompaniment. From Baru Chandidas to Rabindranath the unbroken line of lyric poetry flows in Bengal, the first glimpse of that lyrical tendency can be found in the Charyagitis.

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